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James Gadsden was born May 15, 1788 in Charleston, South Carolina. James graduated at Yale in 1806, became a merchant in Charleston and later served in the US army as a lieutenant of engineers in the war of 1812. Beginning in 1818, he served against the Seminoles, assisting in the occupation and establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. Gadsden served in the Territorial legislature and as a Federal commissioner in the removal of the Seminole Indians in South Florida where he was a planter. He tried to negotiate with the Indians to move to what is now Oklahoma, but they refused, leading to the second Seminole War. In 1853, President Pierce appointed him minister to Mexico where he negotiated the Gadsden Treaty that gave the US freedom of transit for mails, merchandise, and troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. He also created the readjusted boundary, acquiring more land in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. Gadsden returned to Charleston where he died on December 25, 1858.- Barton/ Source: www.nndb.com
 * 221. James Gadsden:**
 * 222. Pottawatomie Creek: the site of 5 murders by John Brown and his companions. Brown was a believer in antislavery, and killed these men who he believed to be proslavery. This murder at Pottawatomie Creek sparked conflict in Kansas between proslavery and antislavery people, and eventually led to the nickname “Bleeding Kansas”. – Fitts/ //Source//: Garraty Chapter 13 **

Also known as Bloody Kansas or the Border War, Bleeding Kansas was a series of violent events, involving Free-Staters and Border Ruffian elements, and taking place in the Kansas Terriroty and the western towns of Missouri. These events, occuring between 1854 and 1858, dealt with the question of whether Kansas would become a free state or slave state. Bleeding Kansas was a "proxy war" between the North and South over the issue of slavery and directly presaged the Civil War. []
 * 223. Bleeding Kansas:**
 * Greathouse**

(March 17, 1777-October 12, 1864) Roger Taney was the 5th Chief Justice of the US, holding office from 1836 to his death. He was the first Roman Catholic to hold Chief Justice or to sit on the Supreme Court. He was also the 11th US Attorney General. He is most remembered for deciding in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) that African Americans could not be considered citizens of the United States. []
 * 224. Roger Taney:**
 * Greathouse**
 * 225. Lecompton Constitution: a constitution drafted by proslavery leaders in Kansas. Free Soilers refused to participate in a vote to pass the constitution. Buchanan-appointed governor Robert J. Walker declared the Lecompton Constitution void and traveled to Washington, D.C. to tell Buchanan of the dilemma. Trying to avoid the situation, the president admitted Kansas to the Union under the Lecompton Constitution. – Fitts/ //Source//: Garraty Chapter 13 **


 * 226. Harper's Ferry: A town in Virginia that John Brown planned to attack. Brown’s party was met with federal troops and eventually he was captured. This failed attack became known as John Brown’s raid and came to embody the sectional conflict that America was experiencing. – Fitts/ //Source//: Garraty Chapter 13 **

Robert E. Lee was born in Virginia on January 19, 1807, growing up in an area where George Washington was still a living memory. Lee graduated second in his class at West Point and commissioned a brevet 2nd Lieutenant of Engineers. He married Mary Ann Randolph Custis, with whom he had 7 children. During the Mexican War, Lee was promoted to Colonel and in 1852, he became Superintendent of the Military Academy. In 1855, Lee was transferred from staff to line by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis. He served in West Texas for 4 years until he was recalled by General Winfield Scott when the lower South seceded from the Union. Although he was a Whig, he was strongly attached to the Union and to the Constitution. When Virginia withdrew from the Union, Lee resigned his commission and became the Commander-in-Chief of the military and naval forces of Virginia. He became military advisor to President Davis in 1862, where he took initiative and acted at once on his plans. After surrendering during a battle at Chancellorsville, he assumed the presidency of Washington College until he died on October 12, 1870. - Barton/ Source: http://americancivilwar.com/south/lee.html
 * 227. Robert E. Lee:**
 * 228. John C. Breckenridge: One of two democratic nominees for the presidential election of 1860. The southern democrats supported Breckenridge, who was a native of Kentucky. In the actual election, he won most of the slave states, but the presidency ultimately went to Lincoln. – Fitts/ //Source//: Garraty Chapter 13 **

John Bell, from Tennessee, was elected as president elect for the Constitutional Union Party, but lost to Abraham Lincoln. Bell worked as a lawyer until he was elected to the House of Representatives. He joined the Whig Party and was elected William Harrison's Secretary of War in 1841. Bell was elected Senator for Tennessee in 1847. Bell voted against the Kansas-Nebraska Act and opposed expansion of slavery even though he was a large slaveowner.- Barton/ Source: www.spartacus.schoolnet.com
 * 229. John Bell:**
 * 230. John Crittenden:**

John Crittenden was a politician from Kentucky who served in the House, Senate, as the US Attorney General, and as the Governor of Kentucky. He joined the Know Nothing Party in the 1850s as his party the Whigs fell apart. During this time as a Senator he worked for a compromise on the issue of slavery. As the threat of Southern secession increased he sought out moderated from all parties and formed the Constitutional Union Party. He authorized the Crittenden Compromise, a series of resolutions he hoped would prevent the onset of the Civil War, but it was never approved by Congress. -CROWE __[]__

** a compromise created by Kentucky senator John J. Crittenden meant to appease the secessionist South. It stated that any land south of the Missouri Compromise line would be allowed to establish slavery. Any land north of the line would be free of slavery. Many people, including President Lincoln, opposed this compromise because it allowed slavery to spread into new territories. Nothing became of the compromise. – Fitts/ //Source//: Garraty Chapter 13 **
 * 231. Crittenden Compromise:**


 * 232. Fort Sumter:**

The Battle of Fort Sumter was the bombardment and surrender of Fort Sumter in South Carolina that started the Civil War. When South Carolina seceded from the union it demanded that the U.S. Army abandon its facilities in Charleston. When U.S. Major Robert Anderson moved his command to the highly defensible fort, the Confederate States delivered the ultimatum that the US forces were to evacuate immediately. After 34 hours of bombardment Major Anderson surrendered the fort and evacuated South Carolina. This battle sparked both the North and the South into military action and the Civil War took off. -CROWE __http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter__

In the context of the American Civil War, the term **border states** refers to slave states which did not declare their secession from the United States before April 1861. Four slave states never declared a secession: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri, and four others did not declare secession until after the 1861 Battle of Fort Sumter: Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia — after which, they were less frequently called "border states". Also included as a border state during the war is West Virginia, which broke away from Confederate Virginia and became a new state in the Union. __//McKeon//__ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_states_%28American_Civil_War%29
 * 233. border states:**

The Homestead Act was a US federal law that gave anyone who had never raised arms against the Federal government, including freed slaves, but obviously not Southerners who were in the mists of the Civil War against the federal government up to 160 acres of free undeveloped federal land west of the Mississippi River. The applicant had to file an application, improve the land and file for deed of title to receive the land. -CROWE http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestead_Act
 * 234. Homestead Act:**


 * 235. Morrill Land Grant Act:**

Prior to the introduction of this bill in 1857, there had been a movement calling for the creation of agriculture colleges led by Professor Jonathan Baldwin Turner. He called for the Illinois congressmen to work to enact a land-grant bill to start industrial colleges in each state. The idea was taken over by Vermont representative Justin Morril. He wanted to allocate land to the states based on their populations which made it more advantageous to the Eastern states. Initially the bill was passed by congress but vetoed by President Buchanan, but when it added an amendment assuring that the institutions would teach military tactics and the South seceded, President Lincoln signed it into law. -CROWE http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morrill_Land_Grant_Act


 * 236. transcontinental railroad:**

The Transcontinental Railroad was built between 1863 and 1869 and joined the eastern and western halves of the United States. Its construction is considered to be one of the greatest American Technological feats of the 19th century. It served as a vital link for trade, commerce, and travel. It also opened up vast regions of the West for settlement. -CROWE http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_railroad

These were two US federal laws that established a system of national charters for the United States national banks. They were established by Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase because the federal government needed a national banking system that satisfied wartime credit needs and established a national currency. The original Act, passed in the Senate in 1863 with a 23-21 vote, was to raise money in order to finance the war against the Confederacy. It required banks to buy federal bonds and get rid of the state bank-issued currency before depositing bonds with the federal government. The banks then could issue their own notes up to 90 percent of the market value of the bonds on deposit. But this Act did not solve the nation's financial problems, and was replaced by the National Bank Act of 1864 which converted 1500 state banks into national banks by additional legislation. [], [] __MJones__
 * 237. National Bank Acts:**

The **Greenback Party** (also known as the **Independent Party**, the **National Party**, and the **Greenback-Labor Party**) was an American political party with an anti-monopoly ideology that was active between 1874 and 1884. Its name referred to paper money, or "greenbacks," that had been issued during the American Civil War and afterward. The party opposed the shift from paper money back to a bullion coin-based monetary system because it believed that privately owned banks and corporations would then reacquire the power to define the value of products and labor. It also condemned the use of militias and private police against union strikes. Conversely, they believed that government control of the monetary system would allow it to keep more currency in circulation, as it had in the war. This would better foster business and assist farmers by raising prices and making debts easier to pay. It was established as a political party whose members were primarily farmers financially hurt by the Panic of 1873. //__McKeon__// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenback_Party
 * 238. greenbacks:**

He was elected as a Democrat to the Ohio legislature in 1845 and 1846, and also served as editor of a weekly newspaper, the //Dayton Empire//, from 1847 until 1849. He ran for Congress in 1856, and was narrowly defeated. He appealed to the House of Representatives, which seated him, by a party vote, on the next to last day of the term. He was elected by small margins in 1858 and in 1860, when he reluctantly supported Stephen A. Douglas. Once the Civil War began, however, the majority anti-secession population of the Dayton area turned him out, and Vallandigham lost his bid for a third term in 1862 by a relatively large vote; but this result may not be strictly comparable, owing to redistricting. Vallandigham was a vigorous supporter of constitutional states' rights. He did not believe in supporting a war to end slavery, which he felt would lead to the enfranchisement of black people. He believed that the federal government had no power to regulate the institution. He further believed that the Confederacy had a right to secede and could not constitutionally be conquered militarily. He supported the Crittenden Compromise and proposed (February 20, 1861) a division of the Senate and of the electoral college into four sections, each with a veto. He strongly opposed every military bill, leading his opponents to allege that he wanted the Confederacy to win the war. He was the acknowledged leader of the Copperheads and in May 1862 coined their slogan, "To maintain the Constitution as it is, and to restore the Union as it was." //__McKeon__// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_L._Vallandigham
 * 239. Clement L. Vallandigham:**

John Merryman (August 9, 1824 – November 15, 1881) was the petitioner in one of the best known habeas corpus cases of the American Civil War, a militia officer during the Civil War, and a Maryland politician. On May 25, 1861, Merryman was arrested at his home in Cockeysville by Union troops, indicted for treason, and confined in Fort McHenry. Merryman petitioned for a writ of //habeas corpus//, which was granted by Chief Justice Taney, but the writ was disobeyed by General George Cadwalader, the arresting officer, under orders from President Lincoln, even though Taney cited Cadwalader for contempt. Taney declared Lincoln's suspension of //habeas corpus// unconstitutional. While Merryman was in jail awaiting a hearing, Taney had furniture and home-cooked meals brought to him in his cell. Merryman later named one of his sons Roger B. Taney Merryman in the Chief Justice's honor. __//McKeon//__ __http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Merryman__
 * 240. John Merryman:**

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