PG+13

The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement embodied by a group of landscape painters whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. The paintings for which the movement is named depict the Hudson River Valley and the surrounding area, including the Catskill, Adirondack, and the White Mountains; eventually works by the second generation of artists associated with the school expanded to include other locales. ROW []
 * 181. Hudson River School of Art:**

Alexis-Charles-Henri Clérel de Tocqueville: (29 July 1805, Paris – 16 April 1859, Cannes) was a French political thinker and historian best known for his Democracy in America (appearing in two volumes: 1835 and 1840) and The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856). In both of these works, he explored the effects of the rising equality of social conditions on the individual and the state in western societies. Democracy in America (1835), his major work, published after his travels in the United States, is today considered an early work of sociology and political science. ROW []
 * 182. Alexis de Tocqueville:**

"Burned-over district" refers to the religious scene in Upstate New York, particularly the western and central regions of the state, in the early 19th century, which was repeatedly "burned over" by religious revivals of the Second Great Awakening. The term was coined by Charles Grandison Finney who in his 1876 book Autobiography of Charles G. Finney referred to a "burnt district" to denote an area in central and western New York State during the Second Great Awakening. The name was inspired by the notion that the area had been so heavily evangelized as to have no "fuel" (unconverted population) left over to "burn" (convert). When religion is related to reform movements of the period, such as abolition, women's rights, and utopian social experiments, the region expands to include areas of central New York that were important to these movements. ROW []
 * 183. "The Burned Over District":**

was a Presbyterian and Congregationalist figure in the Second Great Awakening. His influence during this period was enough that he has been called The Father of Modern Revivalism. Finney was known for his innovations in preaching and religious meetings such as having women pray in public meetings of mixed gender, development of the "anxious seat", a place where those considering becoming Christians could come to receive prayer, and public censure of individuals by name in sermons and prayers. He was also known for his use of extemporaneous preaching. ROW []
 * 184. Charles G. Finney:**

comprises the religious, institutional, and cultural elements of the most populous branch of the Latter Day Saint movement. This movement was founded by Joseph Smith, Jr., in the 1830s and 1840s, and Mormonism represents the branch of that movement led by Brigham Young after Smith's death. This was sometimes called the "Brighamite" branch of the faith. Mormonism is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which is by far the largest denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement. Mormonism also includes Mormon fundamentalism, a tradition that continued to practice plural marriage after the LDS Church discontinued the practice around the turn of the 20th century. Mormonism further includes a few small sects that broke from the LDS Church in order to pursue a more liberal religious path. Non-"Brighamite" traditions within the Latter Day Saint movement, such as the Community of Christ, generally disavow the term Mormonism. The term Mormonism derived from the Book of Mormon, one of the faith's religious texts along with the Bible. Based on the name of that book, early followers of founder Joseph Smith, Jr. were called Mormons, and their faith was called Mormonism. The term was initially considered pejorative,__ ] __ but is no longer considered so by Mormons. Mormon theology is a form of restorationism that shares a common set of beliefs with the rest of the Latter Day Saint movement, including use of, and belief in, the Bible, as well as other religious texts including the Book of Mormon and Doctrine and Covenants. It differs from other Latter Day Saint movement traditions in that it also accepts the Pearl of Great Price as part of its canon, and it has a history of teaching eternal marriage, eternal progression, and plural marriage (although the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had abandoned the practice by the early 20th century). Cultural Mormonism includes a lifestyle promoted by the Mormon institutions, and includes cultural Mormons who identify with the culture, but not necessarily the theology. ROW []
 * 185. Mormons:**

was the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, a group of churches whose adherents regard him as a prophet. During the late 1820s he became the leader of a small group of followers who believed that an angel had given him a book of golden plates containing a religious history of ancient American peoples. Smith said he had translated the writing on the plates from an unknown language into English; and in 1830, he published the translation as the Book of Mormon and organized what he said was a restoration of the early Christian church. Moving the church in 1831 from western New York to Kirtland, Ohio, Smith attracted hundreds of converts, who came to be called Latter Day Saints. Some of these he sent to establish a holy city of "Zion" in Jackson County, Missouri. In 1833, Missouri settlers expelled the Saints from Zion, and Smith led an unsuccessful paramilitary expedition to recover the land. Fleeing an arrest warrant in the aftermath of a Kirtland financial crisis, Smith joined the remaining Saints in Far West, Missouri, in 1838. However, tensions escalated into a war with hostile Missourians. Believing the Saints to be in insurrection, the governor ordered their expulsion from Missouri, and Smith was imprisoned on capital charges. After escaping state custody in 1839, Smith led the Saints to build Nauvoo, Illinois, on Mississippi River swampland, where he became mayor and commanded the large Nauvoo militia. In early 1844, he announced his candidacy for President of the United States. That summer, after the Nauvoo Expositor criticized Smith's teachings, the Nauvoo city council, headed by Smith, ordered the paper's destruction. In a futile attempt to check public outrage, Smith first declared martial law, then surrendered to the governor of Illinois. He was killed by a mob while awaiting trial in Carthage, Illinois. ROW [].
 * 186. Joseph Smith:**

was an American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and a settler of the western United States. He was the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death and was the founder of Salt Lake City and the first governor of Utah Territory, United States. Brigham Young University was named in his honor. Young had a variety of nicknames, among the most popular being "American Moses,” because, like the Biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was dubbed by his followers the "Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality, and was also commonly called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. Young was a polygamist and was involved in controversies regarding black people and the Priesthood, the Utah War, and the Mountain Meadows massacre. ROW []
 * 187. Brigham Young:**

was a utopian experiment in communal living in the United States in the 1840s. It was founded by former Unitarian minister George Ripley and his wife Sophia Ripley at the Ellis Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1841 and was inspired in part by the ideals of Transcendentalism, a religious and cultural philosophy based in New England. Founded as a joint stock company, it promised its participants a portion of the profits from the farm in exchange for performing an equal share of the work. Brook Farmers believed that by sharing the workload, ample time would be available for leisure activities and intellectual pursuits. ROW []
 * 188. Brook Farm:**

New Harmony, Indiana is the site of two great utopian American societies. First founded by the Harmony Society in 1814, this was the new location for a group of German Lutheran Church Separatists, led by Johann Georg Rapp. This land provided the society with plenty of land for westward expansion. The Harmonists combined the Swabian work ethic ("Work, work, work! Save, save, save!") with the Benedictine rule ("Pray and work!"). This resulted in an unheard of economic achievement that was recognized as "the wonder of the west." They sold the entire community in 1825 to Robert Owen from Scotland. Owen's idea of the perfect society he was hoping to create included free education and the abolition of social classes and personal wealth. He achieved a small and partial mode of this dream with the help of famous Scottish geologist and businessman William Maclure and other world renowned scientists and philosophers. They implemented ideas of vocation education, kindergarten, and other educational reforms. //Sellers// //[]//
 * 189. New Harmony:**

This religious commune was founded by John Humphrey Noyes in 1848. The community was formed on Noyes ideas about Christ, marriage, and communalism. The community believed that Jesus Christ had already returned in the year 70, making it possible for them to bring about Christ's millennial kingdom themselves, and be free of sin and perfect in this world, not just Heaven (a belief called Perfectionism). The main teaching which received the most criticism was that of "Complex Marriage." In Complex Marriage, every man was married to every woman and vice versa. This practice was to stay only within the community and had to stay within certain guidelines, like that before the man and woman could cohabit, they had to obtain each other's consent through a third person or persons. Another teaching practiced was that of "Mutual Criticism." Mutual Criticism was established to assure the integrity of the community by conformity to Noyes' morality. The way in which Mutual Criticism worked was that a member, under communal control, was subjected to criticisms of either a committee or the whole community. The criticisms were usually directed toward the "member's bad traits (those thoughts or acts that detracted from family unity), and an individual could be put through a shameful, humiliating experience." Only Noyes himself would not go through this unless he decided to, because he felt that a group should not criticize their leader.The community never grew very large, was highly controversial, and died with Noyes. He left the community to his son, but he was an atheist and did not have his father's talent for leadership. //Sellers// //[]//
 * 190. Oneida Community:**

The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, known as the Shakers or Shaking Quakers, is a religious sect originally thought to be a development of the Protestant Quakers. Founded upon the teachings of Ann Lee, the group was known for their emphasis on social equality and rejection of sexual relations, which led to their precipitous decline in numbers after their heavy involvement in the running of orphanages was curtailed. The Shakers represent a small but important Utopian response to the gospel. Preaching in their communities knew no boundaries of gender, social class, or education. //Sellers// []
 * 191. Shakers:**

This society has roots that extend all the way back to Germany, where a pietistic sect called the Inspirationists established the Community of True Inspiration to protest the arbitrary rule of church and state. They lived on large estates for protection, but high rents and unfriendly governments forced them to move to America. Once in Erie County, New York (near Buffalo), they adopted a communism as a way of life, with six villages with farms, factories, and mills. Growth in Buffalo however encroached on the isolation this community sought. They then moved to Iowa County and incorporated as the Amana Society, built more schools, stores, churches, mills and continued their communal way of life. In the early twentieth century however, they were again crowded by population increases in their area and this reassessment found the communal fervor and idealism once present had dimmed. They instead reorganized in 1932 on the basis of cooperative capitalism as a joint stock company in which both business owners and employees held stock. For nearly a century, the Amana Community conducted the most successful experiment in American communism and established itself as the nation's longest-lasting communal society. //Sellers// //[]//
 * 192. Amana Community:**

The lyceum movement in the United States was a trend in architecture inspired by (or at least named for) Aristotle's Lyceum in ancient Greece. (The Lyceum was the school outside Athens where he taught, 335–332 BC.) Lyceums—in the sense of organizations that sponsored public programs and entertainments—flourished in the mid-19th century, particularly in the northeast and middle west, and some lasted until the early 20th century. ROW []
 * 193. Lyceum Movement:**

was an American activist on behalf of the indigent insane who, through a vigorous program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums. During the Civil War, she served as Superintendent of Army Nurses. ROW []
 * 194. Dorothea Dix:**

1842 Massachusetts Supreme Court case ruling that criminal conspiracy does not apply to labor unions, declared that trade unions were legal, had the right to strike or take other peaceful measures to raise wages and ban non union workers. changed the traditional criteria for conspiracy by declaring that the act of combining for a purpose was not illegal. if they gathered " to accomplish some criminal or unlawful purpose, or to accomplish some purpose, not in itself criminal or unlawful, by criminal or unlawful means ", they could be prosecuted with criminal conspiracy [|Britannica.com- Commonwealth v. Hunt] (Otto)
 * 195. Commonwealth V. Hunt:**

William Lloyd Garrison was an American abolitionist, journalist and social reformer in the nineteenth century. Garrison wanted the immediate emancipation of slaves in the United States. He became an avid supporter of women's suffrage at the same time--some of his influences include Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and Lucy Stone. Garrison is best known for his work as an editor of //The Liberator//, an abolitionist newspaper, and as a founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society. (Radtke) source: []
 * 196. William Lloyd Garrison** (December 12, 1805 – May 24, 1879)

John Tyler, Jr. was the tenth President of the United States (1841–1845) and the first to succeed the office following the death of a predecessor. A longtime Democratic Republican, Tyler was nonetheless elected Vice President on the Whig ticket. Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison on April 4, 1841, only a month after his inauguration the nation was briefly in a state of confusion regarding the process of succession. Ultimately the situation was settled with Tyler becoming President both in name and in fact, setting a precedent that would govern future successions and eventually be codified in the Twenty-fifth amendment. Once he became president, he stood against his party's platform and vetoed several of their proposals. In result, most of his cabinet resigned and the Whigs expelled him from their party. Arguably the most famous and significant achievement of Tyler's administration (aside from setting the precedent for Vice-Presidential succession) was the annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845. (Maschler) source:[| http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyler]
 * 197. John Tyler** (March 29, 1790 – January 18, 1862)

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is the peace treaty, largely dictated by the US to the intermin government of a military occupied Mexico City that ended the Mexican American War (1846 – 48). With the defeat of its army and the fall of the capital, Mexico in September 1847 the Mexican government surrendered to the United States and entered into negotiations to end the war. The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist and a special commission representing the collapsed Mexican government. Under the terms of the treaty negotiated by Trist, Mexico ceded Upper California and New Mexico. This was known as the Mexican Cession and included present-day Arizona and New Mexico and parts of Utah, Nevada, and Colorado. Mexico relinquished all claims to Texas and recognized the Rio Grande as the southern boundary with the United States. (Maschler) source: []
 * 198. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo**

The Slave Power (often called the "Slaveocracy") was a hostile term used in the United States 1840-1865 to denounce the political power of the slaveholding class in the South. The argument was that this small group of rich men had seized control of their own states and was trying to take over the national government in illegitimate fashion to use it to expand and protect slavery. The issue was not the treatment of slaves. It was fear of slave oligarchs. Men and women could differ on scores of issues, hate blacks or like them, denounce slavery as a sin or promise to guarantee its protection in the Deep South, and still attack the "slaveocracy." It didn't where someone stood on other issues. Someone could still hate the slavemasters with a passion. KW []
 * 199. Slave Power:**

A Vigilance Committee is a volunteer group of citizens that, without authority, assumes powers such as pursuing and punishing criminals. In the 1850s these were often made up of abolitionists. Many of the groups started in the West. An example is when two Georgians went to Boston to reclaim Willaim and Ellen Craft, who were fugitives. The Vigilance Committee followed and harrassed them until the two men returned home without the escaped slaves. //__Messerli__// //__[]__//
 * 200. Vigilance Committee:**

**PG 14**